Linguistic Changes Affecting the Pronunciation of Biblical Hebrew 2000 B.C.E.

Linguistic Changes Affecting the Pronunciation of Biblical Hebrew 2000 B.C.E. - 850 C.E.[1]

	Steinberg 2008	Rendsburg Rendsburg 1997, 2007	Manuel Manuel 1995	Sáenz-Badillos[2] Sáenz-Badillos 1993	Blau Blau 1972, 1976, 1993, 1995, 1998, 2007	Birkeland Birkeland 1940[3]	Harris Harris 1939, 1941 [4]	Bergstärsser Bergstärsser 1918-29 [5]
c. 2000 - c. 900 B.C.E.	Proto-Semitic - Stress Period: 1 (accent on long penult or ante penult); and 2 (accent fixed on penult)[6]. Changes not necessarily in chronological sequence		Proto-Semitic - Stress Period: 1 (accent on long penult or ante penult); and 2 (accent fixed on penult)[7]. Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes not in chronological sequence	Blau's Stress Periods One and Two Changes in chronological sequence	Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes in chronological sequence	Changes in chronological sequence
	Homogeneous diphthong contraction. Accented PS short vowel followed by an unvoweled homogeneous consonant and another consonant (other than a pharyngeal or [r]) contracted with the first consonant to form the corresponding long vowel.[8] Examples [ʾa] > [ā] [iy] > [ ῑ ] - ḥaˈṣῑ = "half" - ˈyihῑ = "may he be"		Medial unstressed heterogeneous diphthong contraction. In a medial syllable, an unaccented PS /a/ followed by an unvoweled heterogeneous semi-vowel contracted with the semi-vowel to form a secondary long vowel [aw] > [ō] e.g., ˈmawšabu > mōˈšabu = "dwelling"; mawtu > mōtu = "death of" [ay] > [ệ] e.g. ˈhayṭiba > hệˈṭῑba = "he did well"; baytu > bệtu = "house of" Final diphthongs actually triphthongs with the inflectional morpheme (case or mood), and now accented, unreduced. E.g. *ˈmawšabu (root wšb > yšb) = "seat".	N.b. In dialect(s) reflected in Tel el-Amarna Letters (mid-fourteenth c. BCE)[9]: -development of [e] - [aw] > [ō]; - [ay] > [ệ] - In stressed syllables [ā] > [ō] - relative particle ašar - causitive hiqtil	Stress either - 1. on penultimate syllable, if it was long closed or containing a long vowel, and otherwise on the antepenult.[10] OR, 2. - The long vowel most closely preceding the case and mood endings the syllable containing that vowel is stressed - If there is no such long vowel, the syllable preceding the case and mood endings is stressed.[11]	[aw] > [ō]; [ay] > [ệ] (In certain conditions these were later restored)	Initial [w] > [y]	Initial [w] > [y]
				Initial [w] > [y]		Short vowels immediately followed by [ʾ][12] lengthen.	[n] immediately preceding a consonant assimilates resulting in the gemination of the following consonant	Final [iy] > [ê]
	Initial [w] > [y]		Homogeneous diphthong[13] contraction. Accented PS short vowel followed by an unvoweled homogeneous consonant and another consonant (other than a pharyngeal or [r]) contracted with the first consonant to form the corresponding long vowel.[14] Examples - [ʾa] > [ā] [iy] > [ ῑ ][15] - ḥaˈṣῑ[16] = "half" - yihῑ[17] = "may he be"	[aw] > [ō]; [ay] > [ệ] (These shifts were not complete in Jerusalem dialect)	Stressed ʾ(א) closing a syllable after an ʾ(א) opening that syllable undergoes dissimilation with compensatory lengthening of the vowel between them - i.e. ˈʾaʾ > ˈʾā > ˈʾō e.g. ˈʾaʾḫuð > ˈʾāḫuð > ˈʾōḫuð > ˈʾōḫið[18] > אֺחֵז "I shall take".	[ā] > [ō]	[aw] > [ō]; [ay] > [ệ] (These shifts were not complete in Jerusalem dialect)	Case ending vowels of noun dropped in construct
	[ki] >[ti] as suffix 1st singular of suffix conjugation			[ā] > [ō]	ʾ (א) closing a stressed syllable was elided	[h] between two vowels quiesces (In certain conditions these were later restored)	/ď/ > /ṣ/	Frequently in closed stressed syllables [i] > [a]
	[ā] > [ō]			/ṱ / > /ṣ/ /ď/ > /ṣ/ /δ/ > /z/ /ṱ / > /ṣ/	Stressed ā shifts to ō prior to stress shift	[y][19] and [w] between 2 vowels quiesces. When two vowels brought into contact by this, they merge into a monophthong e.g. [a] + [u] > [ō]	/δ/ > /z/	[i] > [ę] ; [u] > [o]
	Axial Change Stress becomes uniformly penultimate. Generally same syllables stressed as in TB Hebrew		[ʾa] in word-final position did not contract but rather quiesced. Examples - - mōˈṣa[20] = "outlet" - maśˈśa[21] = "load of" - ṣaˈba[22] = "army" - qaˈra[23] = "he read"	Development of cohortative	Axial Change Stress becomes uniformly penultimate. Generally same syllables stressed as in TB Hebrew[24].	[i] > [ę] [u] > [o]	/ṱ / > /ṣ/	[aʾ ] > [ā]
	Axial Change Final short vowels elided in 3 stages: 1. Nouns (including participles) in construct 2. then verbs 3. nouns in absolute state.			Disappearance of Shafel causitive	Stressed ā shifts to ō subsequent to stress shift	Stressed short vowels lengthen	Case ending vowels of noun dropped in construct	In stressed syllables [ā] > [ō][25]
	/ṱ / > /ṣ/ /ď/ > /ṣ/ /δ/ > /z/ /ṱ / > /ṣ/		Dissimilation the /a/ of the discontinuous pronominal morpheme in the changed to /i/ when the theme vowel was also /a/[26]. i.e. the 3 forms of the qal indicative prefix conjugation became - yaqtulu yaqtilu yiqtalu The 4 moods are yaqtulu - imperfect/indicative yaqtula - volitive/subjunctive yaqtul- preterite and jussive yaqtuln(n)a - energic	Use of article	Axial Change Final short vowels elided in 3 stages: 1. Nouns (including participles) in construct 2. then verbs 3. nouns in absolute state.	Some unstressed short vowels reduced to [ә].	[aʾ ] > [ā]	/ṱ / > /ṣ/ /ď/ > /ṣ/
	Use of article			[ki] >[ti] as suffix 1st singular of suffix conjugation	Following the elision of short final vowels in the absolute state, short vowels in the preceding open syllable which now had become closed, were compensatorily lengthened a >ā i >ē u >ō.		[ā] > [ō]	/δ/ > /z/
	Preterite yaqtul replaced, except for its use in waw conversive, by suffix conjugation. This was eventually extended, by analogy to the suffix conjugation.		Late in the period the beginning of loss of final short vowels	Preterite yaqtul replaced, except for its use in waw conversive, by suffix conjugation. This was eventually extended, by analogy to the suffix conjugation.	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk (Blau's revised opinion[27])		Stress generally falls on the syllable before the last vowel.	[n] immediately preceding a consonant assimilates resulting in the gemination of the following consonant
	[n] immediately preceding a consonant assimilates resulting in the gemination of the following consonant			[n] immediately preceding a consonant assimilates resulting in the gemination of the following consonant	Some diphthongs (vowel immediately followed by non-geminated consonant) reduced to long vowels 1. [uw] >[ū] e.g. huwšabtęm > hūšabtęm הוֹּשַבְתֶּם = 'you were made to dwell' 2. [iy] > [ῑ ] e.g. yiybaš > yῑbaš יִיבַשׁ= 'it will be dry'. 3. [iw] >[ū] e.g. yiwkal > yūkal יוּכַל = 'he was able'. 4. [uy] >[ῑ ] e.g. wayyuyśam > wayˈyῑśęm וַיִּשֶֺם = 'he put'. 4. [iwy] >[ūy] > [iyy] >ῑ e.g. kiwy > kūy >kiyy > kῑ כִּי= 'burning'		The vowel before the second person pronominal suffix becomes [ә] e.g. 'your (ms) horse' nominative - sūsuka > sūsәka accusative - sūsaka > sūsәka genetive - sūsika > sūsәka
	Some diphthongs (vowel immediately followed by non-geminated consonant) reduced to long vowels 1. uw >ū e.g. huwšabtęm > hūšabtęm הוֹּשַבְתֶּם = 'you were made to dwell' 2. iy >ῑ e.g. yiybaš > yῑbaš יִיבַשׁ= 'it will be dry'. 3. iw >ū e.g. yiwkal > yūkal יוּכַל = 'he was able'. 4. uy >ῑ e.g. wayyuyśam > wayˈyῑśęm וַיִּשֶֺם = 'he put'. 4. iwy >ūy >iyy >ῑ e.g. kiwy > kūy >kiyy > kῑ כִּי= 'burning'			Dropping of final short vowels			[h] between 2 vowels mostly quiesces.
				Elision of feminine marker [t] in noun and verb. N.b. - this could only have occurred after the dropping of the final short vowels			/y/ and /w/ between 2 vowels frequently quiesces.
							The Suffix /t/ in suffix conjugation of verb (3rd fem. sing.) becomes /ā/
							Frequently in closed stressed syllables [i] > [a] e.g. šōˈmirt > šōˈmart MT שֺׁמֶרֶת
							Almost all final short vowels are dropped.
							In closed stressed syllables [i] > [ę] [u] > [o]
	Elision of feminine marker [t] in noun and verb. N.b. - this could only have occurred after the dropping of the final short vowels						Stressed short vowels are "stress lengthened" really change in timbre: [i] > [ẹ] [u] > [o]
							[θ] > [š]
c. 900 - c. 600 B.C.E.	Stress Period 3 (accent mostly on ultima as short vowels apocopate and accent becomes phonemic) Changes not in chronological sequence		Stress Period 3 (accent mostly on ultima as short vowels apocopate and accent becomes phonemic) Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes not in chronological sequence	Clearly the Jerusalem literary Hebrew of c. 900 - c. 600 B.C.E.mainly or entirely correspons to Blau's Stress Period Three. However, it is unclear to me to what extent Blau sees late developments in Stress Period Two extending into the First Temple Period and early developments in Stress Period Four commencing before the exile.	Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes in chronological sequence	Changes in chronological sequence
	Following the elision of short final vowels words previously ending with short vowels now ended with ultimately stressed closed syllables; otherwise penultimately stressed. Following the elision of short final vowels words previously ending with short vowels now ended with ultimately stressed closed syllables; otherwise penultimately stressed.		Following the elision of short final vowels words previously ending with short vowels now ended with ultimately stressed closed syllables; otherwise penultimately stressed.	He does not deal with changes during this period.		Remaining word final short vowels dropped.	[ḫ] [28] > [ḥ] [ġ] > [^c] [29]	Dropping of final short vowels
	Final diphthongs previously uncontracted due to stress contracted e.g. yibˈnayu > yibˈnay > yibˈnē		Final diphthongs previously uncontracted due to stress contracted e.g. yibˈnayu > yibˈnay > yibˈnē				Unstressed short vowels reduced to [ә] when unstressed.
	Preposition [bi] > [ba]		Preposition [bi] > [ba]			Pretonic short vowels lengthen. E.g. qaṭal > qāṭal MT קָטַל	The letters בגדכפ״ת develop two pronunciations	[y] and [w], directly following a consonant, and now word final after the loss of the final short vowels shift - [y] > [ī] e.g. ˈbikyu > ˈbiky > ˈbękī בֶּכִי = "crying" - [w] > [ū] e.g. ˈśaḥwu > ˈśaḥū (Tib. שׇֹחוּ ) = "swimming".[30]
	Dissimilation the /a/ of the discontinuous pronominal morpheme in the prefix conjugation changed to /i/ when the theme vowel were /u/, /i/. i.e. the 3 forms of the qal indicative prefix conjugation became - yiqtulu yiqtilu yiqtalu		Dissimilation the /a/ of the discontinuous pronominal morpheme in the prefix conjugation changed to /i/ when the theme vowels were /u/, /i/. i.e. the 3 forms of the qal indicative prefix conjugation became - yiqtulu yiqtilu yiqtalu			Stress becomes phonemic	The suffix /at/ of fem. sing. noun becomes /ā/ e.g. malˈkat > malˈkā = "queen"	’ /ʔ/ directly following a consonant, and now word final after the loss of the final short vowels was dropped in speech though maintained in writing as ˈḫiṭ’u >ˈḫiṭ’ > ˈḫẹṭ = "sin"
			Final diphthong shifted [ay] > [ē] regardless of stress. N.b. iII-y forms, dual and bound marker /ay/: yibˈnē; mōšәbē (< mōšabay) = "seats of"			Words ending in [ā], [ī] and [ū] become ultimately stressed	Many penult stressed words shifted to ultimate stress.	Stressed short vowels lengthened while being reduced to [ә] when unstressed.
			/a/ elevated to /i/ in unaccented, closed syllables e.g. mašˈkan > mišˈkan			Differences in vowel length remain but vowel length no longer phonemic	[aʾ ] created by loss of final short vowels shifted - [aʾ ] > [ā]	[aw] > [ō]; [ay] > [ệ]; [θ] > [š]
			Stress Period 4 (tone affects vowel quantity) Changes in chronological sequence				Syllable final: [iʾ ] > [ệ] [uʾ ] > [ō] [īʾ ] > [ī] [ūʾ ] > [ū] [āʾ ] > [ā]	[ ’ ] between 2 vowels usually quiesced.
c. 600 B.C.E.- c. 850 C.E.			Stress Period 5 (tone affects vowel quality) Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes not in chronological sequence	Blau's Stress Periods Four and Five	Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes not in chronological sequence	Changes in chronological sequence
	Elision of syllable or word-final aliph. This probably occurred early in this period.	[ś] > [s]	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk [31]	Elision of syllable or word-final aliph. This probably occurred early in this period.	`In the fourth stress period there was a tendency toward stressing of the last syllable. With very few exceptions open penultimate short stressed syllables were not preserved. The vowel changes which accompanied this stress shift were different from those in the preceding stress period.` - In the prefix conjugation, the distinction between the jussive and preterite on the one hand and the indicative on the other[32]. - In the prefix conjugation of most root types and stems stress in the second person feminine singular, the second person feminine plural and the third person masculine plural moves to the final syllable in the contextual form but not in the pausal form due to the pausal lengthening of the stressed vowel . - In the suffix conjugation of most root types and stems stress in the third person feminine singular and the third person plural moves to the final syllable once again pausal lengthening blocks this shift. E.g. contextual qāˈtalā > qātәˈlā > qåtәˈlå but pausal qāˈtālā > qåˈtålå contextual qāˈtalū > qātәˈlū > qåtәˈlu but pausal qāˈtālū > qåˈtålu - The waw conversive of the suffix conjugation became mainly ultimately stressed thus becoming distinct from the contextual form i.e. qāˈtaltī = "I killed" wәqātalˈtī = "and I will kill"	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk	[ś] > [s]	[ś] > [s]
	The letters בגדכפ״ת develop two pronunciations	[ḫ] > [ḥ] [ġ] > [^c] c. 200 BCE	Preposition [ba] > [bә] [la] > [lә] [ka] > [kә]	The letters בגדכפ״ת develop two pronunciations	Diphthongs [aw] and [ay] preserved "... when stressed and followed by a consonant belonging to the same syllable (in which case the diphthong was later broken up by the intrusion of an ancillary vowel ... as ˈbayt "house" (> בַּיִת), ˈmawt "death" (> מָוֶת), further when followed by w/y, as צַוֵּה /צַו "order!", ˈḥayy > חַי "alive", חַיִּים "life"[33].... In open syllables or when unstressed, they shift to ō/ē, as אוֺ "or" , the status constructus מוֺת־ / בֵּית...." [34] See Blau 1995 for: [aw] > [ō] before the MT orthography fixed; [ay] > [ệ]; after the MTorthography fixed	The distinction between the categories of shwa (silent, median, vocal) is lost with the disappearance of word final geminated consonants.	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk >ˈmęlęk	[ḫ] > [ḥ] [ġ] > [^c]
	[ḫ] > [ḥ] [ġ] > [^c]	Weakening of pharyngeals and laryngeals in some areas	Unstressed [i] > [ẹ] e.g. [ʾil] >[ʾẹl] = "god"	[ḫ] > [ḥ] [ġ] > [^c]	`Originally short vowels lengthened in three cases (in addition to pausal lengthening …)` `- in originally closed syllables, which, by elision of the closing consonant, had become open` `- in originally open syllables in nouns in status absolutus which, by dropping of final short vowels, had become closed final syllables;` `- in pretonic open syllables (Pretonic lengthening and Doubling)`	Helping vowels are inserted before and after gutturals	[y] and [q] loose the ability to geminate when followed by [ә]	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk
	[ś] > [s]	The letters בגדכפ״ת develop two pronunciations c. 400 BCE	Some time after the Greek and Latin transcriptions of Hebrew i.e. after 400 C.E. /ā/ > /å/	[ś] > [s]	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk (Blau's earlier opinion (= Period Five ) opinion[35])	In practice vowel length distinctions disappear in full vowels. However the half-vowels - ә, ă, ŭ\ŏ, ĭ\ĕ - remain shorter than the full vowels.	Gemination of word final consonants disappears.	The letters בגדכפ״ת develop two pronunciations
	When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk	Velarization[36] of the emphatics under Arabic influence c. 1000 CE		When a word ended in a cluster of 2 consonants a helping vowel is inserted between them e.g. ˈmalk > ˈmęlęk			Helping vowels are inserted before and after gutturals	Middle shwa quiesces
	Pretonic lengthening and Doubling	Development of allophones of short vowels Before 400 CE		Pretonic lengthening and Doubling			Unstressed [a] in closed syllables shifts [a] > [i]	A number of consonants loose the ability to geminate when followed by [ә]
	Philippi's lawby which short [i] changes to [a] in closed stressed syllables	Philippi's law		Philippi's law by which short [i] changes to [a] in closed stressed syllables			[ā] > [o]	shwa na^c [ә] > shwa naḥ [∅] i.e. quiesces.
	Law of attenuation by which short [a] in closed unstressed syllables changes to [i]	Law of attenuation between 400 and 850 CE		Law of attenuation by which short [a] in closed unstressed syllables changes to [i]			Gemination of gutturals disappears.	Helping vowels are inserted mostly before but sometimes after gutturals
	Reduction of certain vowels to shewa or, in the environment of a laryngeal consonant, to another ultrashort vowel			Reduction of certain vowels to shewa or, in the environment of a laryngeal consonant, to another ultrashort vowel			In certain circumstances - [a] > [ę] [i] > [ę]
	Reduction of final doubled consonants, vowel changes before and after the laryngeals			Reduction of final doubled consonants, vowel changes before and after the laryngeals			Gutturals affect proximate vowels.
	Reduction of double laryngeals and of double [r]			Reduction of double laryngeals and of double [r]
	Disappearance of intervocalic [h]			Disappearance of intervocalic [h]
	Weakening of the pharyngeal and laryngeal consonants			Weakening of the pharyngeal and laryngeal consonants
	Possibly a further contraction of diphthongs or the use of anaptyctic vowels (ˈbaytu > ˈbayit, ˈmawtu > ˈmawet), etc			Possibly a further contraction of diphthongs or the use of anaptyctic vowels (ˈbaytu > ˈbayit, mawtu > ˈmawet), etc
	Preposition [ba] > [bә] [la] > [lә] [ka] > [kә]

	Indicative	Jussive	Preterite
Qal	yiqˈtol	ˈyiqtol	wayˈyiqtol
Piel	yaqatˈtil/ yәqatˈtel	yaˈqattil/ yәˈqattel	wayyaˈqattil/ wayyәˈqattel
Niphal	yiqqaˈtil/ yiqqaˈtel	yiqˈqatil/ yiqˈqatel	wayyiqˈqatil/ wayyiqˈqatel
Hiphil	yaqˈtīl	ˈyaqtil/ ˈyaqtel	wayˈyaqtil/ wayˈyaqtel
Hithpiel	yitqatˈtil/ yitqatˈtel	yitˈqattil/ yitˈqattel	wayyitˈqattil/ wayyitˈqattel

Proto-Semitic - Stress Period: 1 (accent on long penult or ante penult); and 2 (accent fixed on penult)[6].

Proto-Semitic - Stress Period: 1 (accent on long penult or ante penult); and 2 (accent fixed on penult)[7].

Final diphthongs actually triphthongs with the inflectional morpheme (case or mood), and now accented, unreduced. E.g. *ˈmawšabu (root wšb > yšb) = "seat".